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Page from a Mahabharata series, c.1830-50 (ink & colour on paper)

Page from a Mahabharata series, c.1830-50 (ink & colour on paper)

Indian School, (19th century)

TBM391649

Add 15296 (1) f.34r, Rama accepts his banishment with perfect equanimity, and he and Laksmana take leave of Kaikeyi and Dasaratha, who with head downcast and averted gaze cannot bring himself to look at his son. He and Laksmana leave Kaikeyi's palace and go to that of Rama's mother Kausalya

Add 15296 (1) f.34r, Rama accepts his banishment with perfect equanimity, and he and Laksmana take leave of Kaikeyi and Dasaratha, who with head downcast and averted gaze cannot bring himself to look at his son. He and Laksmana leave Kaikeyi's palace and go to that of Rama's mother Kausalya

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3282996

Add 15296 (1) f.69r, Bharadvaja, on the right in his hermitage, advises the travellers of the way to Citrakuta. In the centre, they cross the Yamuna on an improvised raft, with Sita praying again to the goddess of the river for a safe return, and on the bottom left, find the great banyan tree Bharadvaja had told them about, where Rama and Sita pluck its fruits. A few miles farther on, having hunted for deer, Laksmana again cooks the meat on skewers and they prepare to spend the night there.

Add 15296 (1) f.69r, Bharadvaja, on the right in his hermitage, advises the travellers of the way to Citrakuta. In the centre, they cross the Yamuna on an improvised raft, with Sita praying again to the goddess of the river for a safe return, and on the bottom left, find the great banyan tree Bharadvaja had told them about, where Rama and Sita pluck its fruits. A few miles farther on, having hunted for deer, Laksmana again cooks the meat on skewers and they prepare to spend the night there.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283007

Add 15296 (1) f.96r, Bharata and Shatrughna have performed their father's funeral rites and fourteen days later, after the prescribed period of mourning, the priests headed by Vasistha and ministers bring the necessary articles for coronation to Bharata in the throne-room. Bharata is seated on a small throne, not the elaborate one occupied by his father, with the urn with his father's ashes at the front. The floor is covered by a rich carpet in Mughal style. The chiefs of the army stand on the other side of Bharata and his brother. Bharata refuses to be crowned and announces that he will bring Rama back from exile and stay in the forest himself for fourteen years. He orders the army chiefs to prepare the way for him and the whole court to seek out Rama and bring him back to Ayodhya.

Add 15296 (1) f.96r, Bharata and Shatrughna have performed their father's funeral rites and fourteen days later, after the prescribed period of mourning, the priests headed by Vasistha and ministers bring the necessary articles for coronation to Bharata in the throne-room. Bharata is seated on a small throne, not the elaborate one occupied by his father, with the urn with his father's ashes at the front. The floor is covered by a rich carpet in Mughal style. The chiefs of the army stand on the other side of Bharata and his brother. Bharata refuses to be crowned and announces that he will bring Rama back from exile and stay in the forest himself for fourteen years. He orders the army chiefs to prepare the way for him and the whole court to seek out Rama and bring him back to Ayodhya.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283015

Add 15296 (1) f.90r, The princes go off to meet their other mothers in their zenana, but Kausalya and Sumitra, dressed in mourning saris of red and yellow, having heard of their return, have already set off to meet them. Kausalya reproaches Bharata for having cheated Rama out of his kingdom, but having assured her of his innocence in the matter and having bitterly cursed the person responsible for Rama's exile, he falls fainting at Kausalya's feet. She accepts his assurances. In the morning, in a pavilion where the two queens, two princes and various ministers are seated, Vasistha advises Bharata to cease his lamentations and begin his father's funeral rites.

Add 15296 (1) f.90r, The princes go off to meet their other mothers in their zenana, but Kausalya and Sumitra, dressed in mourning saris of red and yellow, having heard of their return, have already set off to meet them. Kausalya reproaches Bharata for having cheated Rama out of his kingdom, but having assured her of his innocence in the matter and having bitterly cursed the person responsible for Rama's exile, he falls fainting at Kausalya's feet. She accepts his assurances. In the morning, in a pavilion where the two queens, two princes and various ministers are seated, Vasistha advises Bharata to cease his lamentations and begin his father's funeral rites.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283019

Add 15296 (1) f.121r, Rama is seated on a mat facing the two brothers, with the three queens and Sita on his right. Bharata continues to urge Rama to return to Ayodhya to be crowned, arguing that their father had sinned against him for fear of his wife's wrath. But Rama still refuses, citing Kaikeyi's right to insist on the two boons promised by Dasaratha, and their duty to fulfil them, and he instructs Bharata to return to Ayodhya to be installed lest their father end up in hell. Vasistha and Sumantra, with Laksmana between them, are seated in front. Vasistha also trieSita persuade Rama to return with them by claiming that in the unbroken line of descent of the Iksvaku dynasty only the eldest son had ever become king, but Rama cites obedience to his father's command as a higher duty. Bharata says that he is unfit to govern the kingdom and that he will Ramain in the forest instead of Rama, but again Rama cites the absolute imperative of a parent's command. Bharata appeals to the asse

Add 15296 (1) f.121r, Rama is seated on a mat facing the two brothers, with the three queens and Sita on his right. Bharata continues to urge Rama to return to Ayodhya to be crowned, arguing that their father had sinned against him for fear of his wife's wrath. But Rama still refuses, citing Kaikeyi's right to insist on the two boons promised by Dasaratha, and their duty to fulfil them, and he instructs Bharata to return to Ayodhya to be installed lest their father end up in hell. Vasistha and Sumantra, with Laksmana between them, are seated in front. Vasistha also trieSita persuade Rama to return with them by claiming that in the unbroken line of descent of the Iksvaku dynasty only the eldest son had ever become king, but Rama cites obedience to his father's command as a higher duty. Bharata says that he is unfit to govern the kingdom and that he will Ramain in the forest instead of Rama, but again Rama cites the absolute imperative of a parent's command. Bharata appeals to the asse

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283036

Add 15296 (2) f.33r, The angry Laksmana has reached the gate of Kiskindha, where he is welcomed by Angada, Bali's son, and other monkeys. Inside the palace, the crowned Sugriva, seated with the wise Tara on a couch, is slowly brought round from his slothful inebriation. Hanuman tells him that autumn has now arrived and with it the time for action, and advises him to appease Laksmana's wrath by humble submission.

Add 15296 (2) f.33r, The angry Laksmana has reached the gate of Kiskindha, where he is welcomed by Angada, Bali's son, and other monkeys. Inside the palace, the crowned Sugriva, seated with the wise Tara on a couch, is slowly brought round from his slothful inebriation. Hanuman tells him that autumn has now arrived and with it the time for action, and advises him to appease Laksmana's wrath by humble submission.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283047

Add 15296 (2) f.38r, Laksmana enters Sugriva's palace, and is received by the latter bowing down to the ground, with his ministers behind him. The two are reconciled. On the left, Sugriva and Laksmana converse on a couch. Sugriva tells Hanuman to summon his entire army of monkeys, while on the right four monkeys leap to the four quarters, summoning all the troops together.

Add 15296 (2) f.38r, Laksmana enters Sugriva's palace, and is received by the latter bowing down to the ground, with his ministers behind him. The two are reconciled. On the left, Sugriva and Laksmana converse on a couch. Sugriva tells Hanuman to summon his entire army of monkeys, while on the right four monkeys leap to the four quarters, summoning all the troops together.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283049

Add 15296 (2) f.30r, On Mount Prasravana, the two princes wait until the advent of autumn and of the season for going to war, in the meantime revelling in the beauty of the flora and fauna on the mountain and the wonders of the rainy season. But once enthroned, Sugriva has given himself up to courtly pleasures and forgotten his promise to his ally. Now that autumn has come, the angry Rama, seated cross-legged on a lotus-seat, tells Laksmana to go to Kiskindha to remind the dilatory Sugriva of his promise to assist him to recover Sita. Laksmana is enraged at Sugriva's idleness and threatens to slay him, but Rama pacifies him and he duly Sita out.

Add 15296 (2) f.30r, On Mount Prasravana, the two princes wait until the advent of autumn and of the season for going to war, in the meantime revelling in the beauty of the flora and fauna on the mountain and the wonders of the rainy season. But once enthroned, Sugriva has given himself up to courtly pleasures and forgotten his promise to his ally. Now that autumn has come, the angry Rama, seated cross-legged on a lotus-seat, tells Laksmana to go to Kiskindha to remind the dilatory Sugriva of his promise to assist him to recover Sita. Laksmana is enraged at Sugriva's idleness and threatens to slay him, but Rama pacifies him and he duly Sita out.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283052

Add 15296 (2) f.25r, The body of Bali, covered in white, is borne in a domed and beflagged palanquin from the palace and consumed in a funeral pyre, with Sugriva and Angada leading the funeral rites.

Add 15296 (2) f.25r, The body of Bali, covered in white, is borne in a domed and beflagged palanquin from the palace and consumed in a funeral pyre, with Sugriva and Angada leading the funeral rites.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283054

Add 15296 (2) f.44r, Rama seated on a seat of lotus petals in his cave, with Laksmana standing beside him, is overjoyed at seeing the vast army of monkeys that Sugriva has brought with him. Sugriva falls at Rama's feet and the monkey ministers also respectfully greet him. Sugriva tells him of the innumerable monkeys who will be available to assist him in searching for the place where Ravana has taken Sita

Add 15296 (2) f.44r, Rama seated on a seat of lotus petals in his cave, with Laksmana standing beside him, is overjoyed at seeing the vast army of monkeys that Sugriva has brought with him. Sugriva falls at Rama's feet and the monkey ministers also respectfully greet him. Sugriva tells him of the innumerable monkeys who will be available to assist him in searching for the place where Ravana has taken Sita

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283059

Add 15296 (2) f.61r, Still desperately searching for Sita in the mountainous wilderness, the monkeys find the entrance to an enticing cave. On the left, in a separate panel, the monkeys cavort in a flowering tree outside the small entrance to the cave, through which two of the monkeys are diving. On the right, the monkeys emerge through the other end of the cave into a wonderful cavern filled with pavilions of gold and jewels and golden trees. There they find and talk to the female ascetic Svayamprabha.

Add 15296 (2) f.61r, Still desperately searching for Sita in the mountainous wilderness, the monkeys find the entrance to an enticing cave. On the left, in a separate panel, the monkeys cavort in a flowering tree outside the small entrance to the cave, through which two of the monkeys are diving. On the right, the monkeys emerge through the other end of the cave into a wonderful cavern filled with pavilions of gold and jewels and golden trees. There they find and talk to the female ascetic Svayamprabha.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283063

Add 15296 (2) f.84r, Undismayed by the ocean's width, Hanuman swells himself to an immense size and, using the still-burning mountain Mahendra as a launch pad, hurls himself into space and across the ocean to the island kingdom of La?k?. The Ocean encourages Mainaka, the undersea mountain that guardSitae entrance to hell, to rise up and assist Hanuman in his flight. The mountain rises above the waves and its personification, crowned on top of his golden, flower-strewn mountain, tells Hanuman to rest, but Hanuman merely touches it with his hand and leaps off again.

Add 15296 (2) f.84r, Undismayed by the ocean's width, Hanuman swells himself to an immense size and, using the still-burning mountain Mahendra as a launch pad, hurls himself into space and across the ocean to the island kingdom of La?k?. The Ocean encourages Mainaka, the undersea mountain that guardSitae entrance to hell, to rise up and assist Hanuman in his flight. The mountain rises above the waves and its personification, crowned on top of his golden, flower-strewn mountain, tells Hanuman to rest, but Hanuman merely touches it with his hand and leaps off again.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283067

Add 15296 (2) f.68r, The monkeys have resolved to die by starving themselves to death on the shores of the southern ocean rather than return to face their king's wrath. They are seen by the wingless vulture Sampati, brother of the vulture king Jatayu, who had died trying to save Sita from the demon. Sampati had lost his wings through flying too near the sun. They tell him of Jatayu's death at the demon's hand. Sampati tellSitaem that he had seen the demon king Ravana in his aerial chariot abducting a woman, who was calling out constantly the name of Rama. The monkeys carry Sampati down from his cave in the mountain and he tells Angada and the others where Ravana has taken Sita. Ravana, he tells them, rules the kingdom of Lanka, a hundred leagues across the sea. The monkeys carry him to the shore of the ocean, where he performs the funeral rites for his brother.

Add 15296 (2) f.68r, The monkeys have resolved to die by starving themselves to death on the shores of the southern ocean rather than return to face their king's wrath. They are seen by the wingless vulture Sampati, brother of the vulture king Jatayu, who had died trying to save Sita from the demon. Sampati had lost his wings through flying too near the sun. They tell him of Jatayu's death at the demon's hand. Sampati tellSitaem that he had seen the demon king Ravana in his aerial chariot abducting a woman, who was calling out constantly the name of Rama. The monkeys carry Sampati down from his cave in the mountain and he tells Angada and the others where Ravana has taken Sita. Ravana, he tells them, rules the kingdom of Lanka, a hundred leagues across the sea. The monkeys carry him to the shore of the ocean, where he performs the funeral rites for his brother.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283070

Add 15296 (2) f.74r, Sampati's wings grow again, in accordance with the prophecy that they would do so when he had rendered a service to the world by learning where Sita had been taken, thereby enabling Rama to recover her. The monkeys exclaim in wonder as he flies around the mountain.

Add 15296 (2) f.74r, Sampati's wings grow again, in accordance with the prophecy that they would do so when he had rendered a service to the world by learning where Sita had been taken, thereby enabling Rama to recover her. The monkeys exclaim in wonder as he flies around the mountain.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3283071

Add 15296 (1) f.4r, Bharata, Shatrughna and their uncle, along with retainers and two led riding horses, with loaded elephants beyond the horizon line, arrive at the palace of the king of Kekaya, Bharata's maternal grandfather, who awaits them looking out of an upper window apparently above the elephant stable.

Add 15296 (1) f.4r, Bharata, Shatrughna and their uncle, along with retainers and two led riding horses, with loaded elephants beyond the horizon line, arrive at the palace of the king of Kekaya, Bharata's maternal grandfather, who awaits them looking out of an upper window apparently above the elephant stable.

Indian School, (17th century)

BL3282966

Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, f.39r, 17th century (bound paper)

Saṁgrahaṇīratna by Śrīcandra, f.39r, 17th century (bound paper)

Indian School, (17th century)

BL6436592

Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa are seated on a lion skin outside a cave on Mount Prasravaá¹‡a, having been told by Hanumān of his adventures and discovery of Sītā. Hanumān has given Sītā's jewel to Rāma, who is overjoyed and full of praise for him and his valiant companions, but greatly distressed at Sītā's plight. Rāma is comforted by SugrÄ«va.

Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa are seated on a lion skin outside a cave on Mount Prasravaá¹‡a, having been told by Hanumān of his adventures and discovery of Sītā. Hanumān has given Sītā's jewel to Rāma, who is overjoyed and full of praise for him and his valiant companions, but greatly distressed at Sītā's plight. Rāma is comforted by SugrÄ«va.

BL3306350

Angered by the Ocean's non-cooperation, Rāma attacked it with all the weapons at his command and the boiling sea eventually spewed up the appalled Ocean god in person, who advised him that he could not part the waves for him but that he should tell the monkey engineer Nala, the son of the divine architect ViÅ›vakarma, to build a bridge across the sea to Laṅkā. For five days the monkeys then heaved great stones and trees into the ocean to construct a bridge a hundred leagues in length. It is now complete and the monkeys cross over the bridge, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa again mounted on Hanumān and Aṅgada, while VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a and his demons fly across above them. On the far side, demons look out from the walls of Laṅkā, while two monkeys spread out Rāma's tiger skin.

Angered by the Ocean's non-cooperation, Rāma attacked it with all the weapons at his command and the boiling sea eventually spewed up the appalled Ocean god in person, who advised him that he could not part the waves for him but that he should tell the monkey engineer Nala, the son of the divine architect ViÅ›vakarma, to build a bridge across the sea to Laṅkā. For five days the monkeys then heaved great stones and trees into the ocean to construct a bridge a hundred leagues in length. It is now complete and the monkeys cross over the bridge, Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa again mounted on Hanumān and Aṅgada, while VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a and his demons fly across above them. On the far side, demons look out from the walls of Laṅkā, while two monkeys spread out Rāma's tiger skin.

BL3306354

Anshuman follows the path that his uncles took and comes across four elephants of the quarters. He enquires from each of them the whereabouts of his uncles and the horse. He is reassured by each of the elephants that his quest will be successful

Anshuman follows the path that his uncles took and comes across four elephants of the quarters. He enquires from each of them the whereabouts of his uncles and the horse. He is reassured by each of the elephants that his quest will be successful

BL3304070

King Janaka relates the genealogy of his dynasty at the betrothal ceremony

King Janaka relates the genealogy of his dynasty at the betrothal ceremony

BL3304075

Vasishta recounts the entire genealogy of the great Ikshvaku dynasty to all present

Vasishta recounts the entire genealogy of the great Ikshvaku dynasty to all present

BL3304076

Rāvaṇa enquires as to the whereabouts of the puruá¹£a from the rÄká¹£asas. They point in the direction of a cave which he has entered. Rāvaṇa enters the cave and sees there thousands of exalted beings.

Rāvaṇa enquires as to the whereabouts of the puruá¹£a from the rÄká¹£asas. They point in the direction of a cave which he has entered. Rāvaṇa enters the cave and sees there thousands of exalted beings.

BL3283209

Indra the king of the gods approaches Viá¹£á¹‡u, enthroned outside his celestial palace and surrounded by other gods under a canopy, to ask if he would fight against Rāvaṇa in the imminent battle between the gods and rÄká¹£asas. Viá¹£á¹‡u says that he will not fight now, as a god, as Rāvaṇa is protected by a boon that he, Viá¹£á¹‡u, should honour, but that he will vanquish Rāvaṇa personally, at a later date. He nevertheless encourages Indra and the other gods to fight Rāvaṇa now. Viá¹£á¹‡u is depicted here looking rather like Rāma.

Indra the king of the gods approaches Viá¹£á¹‡u, enthroned outside his celestial palace and surrounded by other gods under a canopy, to ask if he would fight against Rāvaṇa in the imminent battle between the gods and rÄká¹£asas. Viá¹£á¹‡u says that he will not fight now, as a god, as Rāvaṇa is protected by a boon that he, Viá¹£á¹‡u, should honour, but that he will vanquish Rāvaṇa personally, at a later date. He nevertheless encourages Indra and the other gods to fight Rāvaṇa now. Viá¹£á¹‡u is depicted here looking rather like Rāma.

BL3283216

The gods and demons are locked in battle. SumÄli the rÄká¹£asa, Rāvaṇa's maternal grandfather, wishing to avenge his ignominious defeat earlier by Viá¹£á¹‡u and the gods (see folio 17r), starts creating havoc amongst the ranks of the gods. Vasu, one of the gods, takes the initiative in fighting SumÄli and a terrific duel between the two ensues on the lower right. SumÄli is defeated after Vasu smashes him with his mace, here a sword, and Vasu triumphs.

The gods and demons are locked in battle. SumÄli the rÄká¹£asa, Rāvaṇa's maternal grandfather, wishing to avenge his ignominious defeat earlier by Viá¹£á¹‡u and the gods (see folio 17r), starts creating havoc amongst the ranks of the gods. Vasu, one of the gods, takes the initiative in fighting SumÄli and a terrific duel between the two ensues on the lower right. SumÄli is defeated after Vasu smashes him with his mace, here a sword, and Vasu triumphs.

BL3283217

Here Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa, with VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a, SugrÄ«va and Aṅgada are seen attacking four or five important rÄká¹£asas. Indrajit, in the bottom right corner, makes a sacrifice to ensure invisibility with fire and a deer. His chariot with his elephant standard is outside. In an aerial chariot, at the top on the left, being now invisible (shown by being partly behind the horizon line), he aims his magic arrows at the monkeys and at Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa. Rāvaṇa looks on from a tower.

Here Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa, with VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a, SugrÄ«va and Aṅgada are seen attacking four or five important rÄká¹£asas. Indrajit, in the bottom right corner, makes a sacrifice to ensure invisibility with fire and a deer. His chariot with his elephant standard is outside. In an aerial chariot, at the top on the left, being now invisible (shown by being partly behind the horizon line), he aims his magic arrows at the monkeys and at Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa. Rāvaṇa looks on from a tower.

BL3283082

Rāvaṇa is sitting in his throne room surrounded by his brothers and sons (all crowned figures), having ordered his demons to go off with dishes of food to awaken Kumbhakará¹‡a. On the left, Rāma and the other leaders are gathered round the still-prostrate Lakṣmaṇa. The monkeys frolic in a tree.

Rāvaṇa is sitting in his throne room surrounded by his brothers and sons (all crowned figures), having ordered his demons to go off with dishes of food to awaken Kumbhakará¹‡a. On the left, Rāma and the other leaders are gathered round the still-prostrate Lakṣmaṇa. The monkeys frolic in a tree.

BL3283091

Rāvaṇa, on the right in his council chamber, resolves to go out to fight himself, but is beseeched not to go by his chief wife MandodarÄ«, who climbs onto his lap, and by his other women (this is not in the text). Rāvaṇa sets out nonetheless with his remaining generals and relatives, his army and his elephants. Seeing that huge mass of demons armed with every kind of weapon and composed of imperturbable soldiers and elephants as high as mountains, Rāma asks VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a to tell him who the commanders are. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a points them out, one by one.

Rāvaṇa, on the right in his council chamber, resolves to go out to fight himself, but is beseeched not to go by his chief wife MandodarÄ«, who climbs onto his lap, and by his other women (this is not in the text). Rāvaṇa sets out nonetheless with his remaining generals and relatives, his army and his elephants. Seeing that huge mass of demons armed with every kind of weapon and composed of imperturbable soldiers and elephants as high as mountains, Rāma asks VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a to tell him who the commanders are. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a points them out, one by one.

BL3283092

Kumbhakará¹‡a falls from his chariot to the consternation of his charioteer and outriders. The text mentions other ill-omens, but not this one, which is perhaps drawn in a kind of sympathy with the earlier champions.

Kumbhakará¹‡a falls from his chariot to the consternation of his charioteer and outriders. The text mentions other ill-omens, but not this one, which is perhaps drawn in a kind of sympathy with the earlier champions.

BL3283103

Hanumān and SugrÄ«va attack Kumbhakará¹‡a. Hanumān breaks his great trident, but Kumbhakará¹‡a aims a mountain peak at SugrÄ«va. SugrÄ«va is then captured and borne off in triumph to Laṅkā, where garlands are offered to Kumbhakará¹‡a.

Hanumān and SugrÄ«va attack Kumbhakará¹‡a. Hanumān breaks his great trident, but Kumbhakará¹‡a aims a mountain peak at SugrÄ«va. SugrÄ«va is then captured and borne off in triumph to Laṅkā, where garlands are offered to Kumbhakará¹‡a.

BL3283108

Rāvaṇa's younger brother MattÄnika, also known as MahÄpÄrÅ›va, is attacked in his chariot by the monkey á¹šá¹£abha and slain with the mace which he has wrested from him. Lakṣmaṇa then slays another of Rāvaṇa's sons, AtikÄya; his head is severed by the BrahmÄ weapon, which the god VÄyu (a little figure mounted on a deer) whispers into Lakṣmaṇa's ear he is to use, as AtikÄya is impervious to all other weapons. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a, in the upper left corner, tells Rāma that AtikÄya is a demon, who through his austerities had obtained favours from all the gods. Monkeys and demons lie about slain, and some demons retreat to Laṅkā.

Rāvaṇa's younger brother MattÄnika, also known as MahÄpÄrÅ›va, is attacked in his chariot by the monkey á¹šá¹£abha and slain with the mace which he has wrested from him. Lakṣmaṇa then slays another of Rāvaṇa's sons, AtikÄya; his head is severed by the BrahmÄ weapon, which the god VÄyu (a little figure mounted on a deer) whispers into Lakṣmaṇa's ear he is to use, as AtikÄya is impervious to all other weapons. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a, in the upper left corner, tells Rāma that AtikÄya is a demon, who through his austerities had obtained favours from all the gods. Monkeys and demons lie about slain, and some demons retreat to Laṅkā.

BL3283114

Kumbha and Nikumbha fight with the monkey leaders. Rāma and the other leaders look on from the left. Aṅgada, whose eyelids have been cut off by Kumbha previously, is fighting with blood streaming down his face against a boar-headed demon. Kumbha's head is pierced with a dagger and Nikumbha appears to be falling with an arrow in his chest. On the right, a demon has picked up a monkey; another monkey is struggling with a demon and a third demon falls back with his head split open. Three animal-headed demons talk to Rāvaṇa, who appears at the jharokhā window of his palace above.

Kumbha and Nikumbha fight with the monkey leaders. Rāma and the other leaders look on from the left. Aṅgada, whose eyelids have been cut off by Kumbha previously, is fighting with blood streaming down his face against a boar-headed demon. Kumbha's head is pierced with a dagger and Nikumbha appears to be falling with an arrow in his chest. On the right, a demon has picked up a monkey; another monkey is struggling with a demon and a third demon falls back with his head split open. Three animal-headed demons talk to Rāvaṇa, who appears at the jharokhā window of his palace above.

BL3283121

MakarÄká¹£a son of Khara, depicted with a pig's head, is sent off by Rāvaṇa to fight. He sets off in his chariot with attendants. Monkeys advance with rocks and trees along the bottom, while above Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa loose arrows at MakarÄká¹£a. He wields his bow, then dismounted, he wields his great golden spear and ultimately falls beneath Rāma's arrows. Inscribed in the margin above the demon: MakarÄká¹£a.

MakarÄká¹£a son of Khara, depicted with a pig's head, is sent off by Rāvaṇa to fight. He sets off in his chariot with attendants. Monkeys advance with rocks and trees along the bottom, while above Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa loose arrows at MakarÄká¹£a. He wields his bow, then dismounted, he wields his great golden spear and ultimately falls beneath Rāma's arrows. Inscribed in the margin above the demon: MakarÄká¹£a.

BL3283123

Rama recognises Lava and Kusha as his own sons and decides to have Sita vindicated by oath in front of all. The top left shows Valmiki being approached by Rama's messengers; Sita is shown inside the hut. The lower section depicts Sita being brought to Rama in front of the assembly in order to take her oath and prove her innocence

Rama recognises Lava and Kusha as his own sons and decides to have Sita vindicated by oath in front of all. The top left shows Valmiki being approached by Rama's messengers; Sita is shown inside the hut. The lower section depicts Sita being brought to Rama in front of the assembly in order to take her oath and prove her innocence

BL3283251

The royal procession enters AyodhyÄ in triumph. Rāma and Sītā are in one carriage and the three brothers in another, while VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a and the allied chiefs all ride on elephants. The procession arrives at the palace through the bazaar with its festive hangings and with bowing shopkeepers. They are met at the gates of the zenana by ladies and, inside the queens' quarters, the four brothers and Sītā bow before KausalyÄ, Kaikeyī and SumitrÄ. Even Kaikeyī is forgiven.

The royal procession enters AyodhyÄ in triumph. Rāma and Sītā are in one carriage and the three brothers in another, while VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a and the allied chiefs all ride on elephants. The procession arrives at the palace through the bazaar with its festive hangings and with bowing shopkeepers. They are met at the gates of the zenana by ladies and, inside the queens' quarters, the four brothers and Sītā bow before KausalyÄ, Kaikeyī and SumitrÄ. Even Kaikeyī is forgiven.

BL3283161

Bali and Ravana are shown four times in this folio, twice performing the sandhya ceremony, then flying with Ravana attached to his girdle and finally on the left, they are seen approaching Kishkinda

Bali and Ravana are shown four times in this folio, twice performing the sandhya ceremony, then flying with Ravana attached to his girdle and finally on the left, they are seen approaching Kishkinda

BL3283198

Ravana allies himself to Madhu. Ravana gathers his army and departs to confront Madhu, shown in the foreground. Ravana approaches Madhu's palace. His sister, Kumbhinasi begs Ravana not to kill Madhu. He agrees and allies himself with Madhu against the gods. Kumbhinasi and Madhu are shown here prostrating themselves at Ravana's feet

Ravana allies himself to Madhu. Ravana gathers his army and departs to confront Madhu, shown in the foreground. Ravana approaches Madhu's palace. His sister, Kumbhinasi begs Ravana not to kill Madhu. He agrees and allies himself with Madhu against the gods. Kumbhinasi and Madhu are shown here prostrating themselves at Ravana's feet

BL3283212

Ravana returns to Lanka and is cursed by the women whom he abducted. Ravana is informed by his brother Vibhishana that his sister Kumbharini has been taken away by Madhu

Ravana returns to Lanka and is cursed by the women whom he abducted. Ravana is informed by his brother Vibhishana that his sister Kumbharini has been taken away by Madhu

BL3283213

While camping on Mount Kailasa, Ravana chances upon Rambha. Overcome with desire, he ravishes her despite her pleading that she is his daughter in-law. Demons and gandharvas are shown camping on the left of the folio

While camping on Mount Kailasa, Ravana chances upon Rambha. Overcome with desire, he ravishes her despite her pleading that she is his daughter in-law. Demons and gandharvas are shown camping on the left of the folio

BL3283215

Indra battles Ravana. Ravana is depicted on the Pushpaka chariot while Indra, the king of the gods, is on his mount Airavata, the white elephant

Indra battles Ravana. Ravana is depicted on the Pushpaka chariot while Indra, the king of the gods, is on his mount Airavata, the white elephant

BL3283218

Sita visits the hermitages. Lakshmana takes Sita in the chariot to visit the hermitages as she had requested. They rest in a hermitage on the banks of the river Gaumati

Sita visits the hermitages. Lakshmana takes Sita in the chariot to visit the hermitages as she had requested. They rest in a hermitage on the banks of the river Gaumati

BL3283223

Shatrughana visits Rama and wishes to stay on in Ayodhya with Rama. However, Rama reminds him of his duty to his subjects and grants him permission to stay only for a week

Shatrughana visits Rama and wishes to stay on in Ayodhya with Rama. However, Rama reminds him of his duty to his subjects and grants him permission to stay only for a week

BL3283234

The story of the Dandaka desert. Rama is told the story of how the entire region was cursed with a dust storm that would render Danda, his family and kingdom and all life lifeless within seven days. Danda was cursed for ravishing Aruja, shown in the centre of the folio and the area is henceforth known as the desert of Dandaka

The story of the Dandaka desert. Rama is told the story of how the entire region was cursed with a dust storm that would render Danda, his family and kingdom and all life lifeless within seven days. Danda was cursed for ravishing Aruja, shown in the centre of the folio and the area is henceforth known as the desert of Dandaka

BL3283241

The great eagle Garuá¸a, vehicle of Viá¹£á¹‡u himself, flies down from heaven and his mere presence releases Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa from their magic serpentine bonds as the snakes go gliding off (eagles are the traditional enemies of snakes), while his touch heals their wounds. He pays them homage along with VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a, SugrÄ«va and other monkeys. Rāma wonders who this great being might be, but Garuá¸a assures him he will know once he has achieved success in the fight and Sītā has been restored to him. The monkeys then howl out their triumph at this turn of events and hurl themselves at Laṅkā once more, wielding tree trunks.

The great eagle Garuá¸a, vehicle of Viá¹£á¹‡u himself, flies down from heaven and his mere presence releases Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa from their magic serpentine bonds as the snakes go gliding off (eagles are the traditional enemies of snakes), while his touch heals their wounds. He pays them homage along with VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a, SugrÄ«va and other monkeys. Rāma wonders who this great being might be, but Garuá¸a assures him he will know once he has achieved success in the fight and Sītā has been restored to him. The monkeys then howl out their triumph at this turn of events and hurl themselves at Laṅkā once more, wielding tree trunks.

BL3283081

Rāvaṇa gives orders (above) to his remaining brothers and ministers and then sets out in his chariot with what remains of his army, with MahÄpÄrÅ›va, Mahodara and VirūpÄká¹£a also in their chariots. SugrÄ«va leads the advance of the monkeys on Rāvaṇa, wielding trees. Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a wait in reserve with Aṅgada.

Rāvaṇa gives orders (above) to his remaining brothers and ministers and then sets out in his chariot with what remains of his army, with MahÄpÄrÅ›va, Mahodara and VirūpÄká¹£a also in their chariots. SugrÄ«va leads the advance of the monkeys on Rāvaṇa, wielding trees. Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a wait in reserve with Aṅgada.

BL3283138

A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script (ink on paper)

A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script (ink on paper)

Turkestan School

BL7261721

Om on an Ipad. The Om is a mantra and mystical Sanskrit syllable of Hindu origin, Paris, France

Om on an Ipad. The Om is a mantra and mystical Sanskrit syllable of Hindu origin, Paris, France

GNG5266419

China / Tibet: A Kalachakra mandala, Lhasam 18th century

China / Tibet: A Kalachakra mandala, Lhasam 18th century

PFH1174638

Highly pleased with the information he brought, Rāma asks Lakṣmaṇa to fetch water from the ocean and consecrates VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a as king of Laṅkā. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a advises Rāma to seek the help of his ancestor the Ocean to make a path for his army across to Laṅkā, and Rāma prepares to propitiate it.

Highly pleased with the information he brought, Rāma asks Lakṣmaṇa to fetch water from the ocean and consecrates VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a as king of Laṅkā. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a advises Rāma to seek the help of his ancestor the Ocean to make a path for his army across to Laṅkā, and Rāma prepares to propitiate it.

BL3306352

Rāma and Rāvaṇa renew their assaults on each other. The gods have decided that the contest is unequal, since Rāvaṇa is in his chariot while Rāma is on foot, so MÄtali, charioteer of the god Indra, at his master's command brings to Rāma Indra's chariot, with Indra's arms and armour in it (arms only according to the text). As a divine happening, MÄtali's meeting with Rāma is depicted over the horizon. MÄtali drives Rāma (now clad in Indra's golden armour) and Lakṣmaṇa into battle, the chariot's pennant being the solar standard of Mewar. Rāvaṇa in his chariot with its serpent standard advances to meet him. The two exchange furious onslaughts on each other as well as threats, but Rāma's attack, combined with the assaults of the monkeys, prove too much for Rāvaṇa, and his charioteer removes him from the battlefield for a respite, much to his master's fury.

Rāma and Rāvaṇa renew their assaults on each other. The gods have decided that the contest is unequal, since Rāvaṇa is in his chariot while Rāma is on foot, so MÄtali, charioteer of the god Indra, at his master's command brings to Rāma Indra's chariot, with Indra's arms and armour in it (arms only according to the text). As a divine happening, MÄtali's meeting with Rāma is depicted over the horizon. MÄtali drives Rāma (now clad in Indra's golden armour) and Lakṣmaṇa into battle, the chariot's pennant being the solar standard of Mewar. Rāvaṇa in his chariot with its serpent standard advances to meet him. The two exchange furious onslaughts on each other as well as threats, but Rāma's attack, combined with the assaults of the monkeys, prove too much for Rāvaṇa, and his charioteer removes him from the battlefield for a respite, much to his master's fury.

BL3283144

Hanumān lands with his mountain peak just outside the walls of Laṅkā and various monkeys start to explore it. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a seems to be making a herbal poultice, while Suá¹£eá¹‡a holds a magical healing herb under Lakṣmaṇa's nose, which cures him miraculously. Lakṣmaṇa arises and he and Rāma embrace. Rāma tells him that neither Sītā, nor victory, nor life itself would hold any meaning for him without his brother, but Lakṣmaṇa reproves him: it is his duty to slay Rāvaṇa that very day and recover his wife. Demons run to tell Rāvaṇa in his palace of Hanumān 's arrival.

Hanumān lands with his mountain peak just outside the walls of Laṅkā and various monkeys start to explore it. VibhÄ«á¹£aá¹‡a seems to be making a herbal poultice, while Suá¹£eá¹‡a holds a magical healing herb under Lakṣmaṇa's nose, which cures him miraculously. Lakṣmaṇa arises and he and Rāma embrace. Rāma tells him that neither Sītā, nor victory, nor life itself would hold any meaning for him without his brother, but Lakṣmaṇa reproves him: it is his duty to slay Rāvaṇa that very day and recover his wife. Demons run to tell Rāvaṇa in his palace of Hanumān 's arrival.

BL3283146

Brahma is seen flying on his mount, the goose, and again in the left foreground granting the young Vaisravana a boon as the Lord of Wealth. Vaisravana is shown in the Pushpaka chariot in the background and then with his father Visravas, when he asks for advice on where to live

Brahma is seen flying on his mount, the goose, and again in the left foreground granting the young Vaisravana a boon as the Lord of Wealth. Vaisravana is shown in the Pushpaka chariot in the background and then with his father Visravas, when he asks for advice on where to live

BL3283166

Bharadvaja talks to his daughter and offers her to Visravas, who receives her into his hermitage on the left. Flowers are showered from heaven on the birth of Visravas' son, named Vaishravana

Bharadvaja talks to his daughter and offers her to Visravas, who receives her into his hermitage on the left. Flowers are showered from heaven on the birth of Visravas' son, named Vaishravana

BL3283167

Sukesha obtains sovereignty of the rakshasas on account of rigid penance and ascetic practices. He is shown first as an ascetic in the foreground of the painting. Sukesha and Devavati are then shown seated in a pavilion on the left with their sons Malyavan, Sumali and Mali directly outside

Sukesha obtains sovereignty of the rakshasas on account of rigid penance and ascetic practices. He is shown first as an ascetic in the foreground of the painting. Sukesha and Devavati are then shown seated in a pavilion on the left with their sons Malyavan, Sumali and Mali directly outside

BL3283172

Sukesha's sons practice penance. The three sons of Sukesha are shown on the left with an ascetic. Garbed as ascetics they are then shown below paying obeisance to Brahma and gaining favourable boons from him. Brahma is seated on a lotus having descended from his vehicle of geese. The three sons are then shown on the right accompanied by titans crossing from the mainland to Lanka

Sukesha's sons practice penance. The three sons of Sukesha are shown on the left with an ascetic. Garbed as ascetics they are then shown below paying obeisance to Brahma and gaining favourable boons from him. Brahma is seated on a lotus having descended from his vehicle of geese. The three sons are then shown on the right accompanied by titans crossing from the mainland to Lanka

BL3283176

Sukesha's sons decide to proceed into battle against the Gods. They are shown conferring with each other in the palace in Lanka in the right section of the painting. The left section depicts them mounted on their battle steeds of horses, fish, snakes, leopards, tigers and elephants marching out of Lanka ready to proceed to Devaloka (home of the Gods) to fight Vishnu and his army

Sukesha's sons decide to proceed into battle against the Gods. They are shown conferring with each other in the palace in Lanka in the right section of the painting. The left section depicts them mounted on their battle steeds of horses, fish, snakes, leopards, tigers and elephants marching out of Lanka ready to proceed to Devaloka (home of the Gods) to fight Vishnu and his army

BL3283178

Vishnu battles Malyavan. Vishnu is seen here in the top centre leading the army of the Gods to the right and is shown defeating Malyavan. On the left, Sumali and the demon army retreat in shame to the netherworlds

Vishnu battles Malyavan. Vishnu is seen here in the top centre leading the army of the Gods to the right and is shown defeating Malyavan. On the left, Sumali and the demon army retreat in shame to the netherworlds

BL3283179

The left section shown Brahma observing Kumbhakarna's penance and granting him a boon. He is tricked, by the Gods and Brahma, into asking that he may sleep for a great length of time. On the right, Bibishana asks that he should always be righteous, perform his duty and be able to use the Brahma weapon

The left section shown Brahma observing Kumbhakarna's penance and granting him a boon. He is tricked, by the Gods and Brahma, into asking that he may sleep for a great length of time. On the right, Bibishana asks that he should always be righteous, perform his duty and be able to use the Brahma weapon

BL3283182

On the right, Vaisravana is shown visiting his father. On the left, Dasagriva and Kumbhakarna perform the severest of penance. Brahma descends from the heavens and prevents him from completing his penance. Brahma grants Dasagriva a boon that he may never be killed by the Gods and that he may be able to take any form he desires

On the right, Vaisravana is shown visiting his father. On the left, Dasagriva and Kumbhakarna perform the severest of penance. Brahma descends from the heavens and prevents him from completing his penance. Brahma grants Dasagriva a boon that he may never be killed by the Gods and that he may be able to take any form he desires

BL3283183

Ravana chances upon Vedavati, a beautiful ascetic living in the forest. Ravana, lusting for her, grabs her by the hair. Having been defiled by the touch of a rakshasa (demon), she is condemned to be reborn as Sita. She foretells that she will bring about Ravana's downfall in her next life

Ravana chances upon Vedavati, a beautiful ascetic living in the forest. Ravana, lusting for her, grabs her by the hair. Having been defiled by the touch of a rakshasa (demon), she is condemned to be reborn as Sita. She foretells that she will bring about Ravana's downfall in her next life

BL3283191

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